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Jewish sources in the Qur’an

In Muhammad's time there were not only pagan Arabs, but also Christians and Jews. There have been meetings and discussions between religions in Arabia. This opens up the possibility that content from the Bible, Jewish and Christian sources can also be found in the Qur’an. There have been studies to trace the contents of the Qur’an in a number of pre-existing sources in the time of Muhammad. Some Muslim scholars tried to refute these studies. This must be analyzed and evaluated.

Religious environment of Muhammad

Muhammad was born into a pagan Arab family that believed many gods. He met Jews and Christians and began to learn from them. Mohammad got new concepts and ideas about religion and about God and it changed him because he left the pagan Arab religion. He began to believe in monotheism. According to traditional Muslims, the words of the Qur’an are divine revelations to Muhammad. However, it is hard to believe that it is a coincidence that most, if not all of the content in the Qur'an can be traced to sources in the time of Muhammad or earlier.

Qur’an 5:31 – Shame of Cain

This verse has several earlier Jewish myths as its source: “Then Allah sent a raven, who scratched the ground, to show him how to hide the shame of his brother. "Woe is me!" said he; "Was I not even able to be as this raven, and to hide the shame of my brother?" then he became full of regrets-” (Qur’an 5:31). Bird tradition can be found in earlier Jewish legends.

Qur’an 7:171 - Law of Moses to the People of Israel

Qur’an 7:171 mentions shaking of the Mount : “When We shook the Mount over them, as if it had been a canopy, and they thought it was going to fall on them (We said): "Hold firmly to what We have given you, and bring (ever) to remembrance what is therein; perchance ye may fear Allah.” Ibn Kathir, a Muslim scholar of the early period of Islam has stated that Qur’an 7:171 can be traced to Jewish sources.[1][2] There is also a reference to the Jewish Babylonian Talmud. [3]

Qur’an 12:30-31 – Potiphar’s wife and Joseph

There is a Jewish comment about the love of Potiphar’s wife for Joseph and her girlfriends who were exited about Joseph and wanted to meet him. According to the Qur’an Potiphar’s wife gave her girlfriends knives: “Ladies said in the City: The wife of the (great) ´Aziz is seeking to seduce her slave from his (true) self: Truly hath he inspired her with violent love: we see she is evidently going astray. When she heard of their malicious talk, she sent for them and prepared a banquet for them: she gave each of them a knife: and she said (to Joseph), "Come out before them." When they saw him, they did extol him, and (in their amazement) cut their hands: they said, "Allah preserve us! no mortal is this! this is none other than a noble angel!” (Qur’an 12:30-31) The explanation for the girlfriends' knives is that the women at the party saw menstrual blood flowing from them due to sexual arousal caused by the handsome slave [4]. It is taken from the previously available Jewish Talmud that women at the feast saw menstrual blood flowing from them due to sexual arousal from the handsome Joseph. [5]

Qur’an 21:51-71 – Abraham’s condemnation of idolatry

In Qur’an 21:51-71 is also a candidate for content of the Jews is. It is about Abraham's resistance to idolatry.

Qur’an 21:51-71 (Yusuf Ali)

51. We bestowed aforetime on Abraham his rectitude of conduct, and well were We acquainted with him. 52. Behold! he said to his father and his people, "What are these images, to which ye are (so assiduously) devoted?" 53. They said, "We found our fathers worshipping them." 54. He said, "Indeed ye have been in manifest error - ye and your fathers." 55. They said, "Have you brought us the Truth, or are you one of those who jest?" 56. He said, "Nay, your Lord is the Lord of the heavens and the earth, He Who created them (from nothing): and I am a witness to this (Truth). 57. "And by Allah, I have a plan for your idols - after ye go away and turn your backs".. 58. So he broke them to pieces, (all) but the biggest of them, that they might turn (and address themselves) to it. 59. They said, "Who has done this to our gods? He must indeed be some man of impiety!" 60. They said, "We heard a youth talk of them: He is called Abraham." 61. They said, "Then bring him before the eyes of the people, that they may bear witness." 62. They said, "Art thou the one that did this with our gods, O Abraham?" 63. He said: "Nay, this was done by - this is their biggest one! ask them, if they can speak intelligently!" 64. So they turned to themselves and said, "Surely ye are the ones in the wrong!" 65. Then were they confounded with shame: (they said), "Thou knowest full well that these (idols) do not speak!" 66. (Abraham) said, "Do ye then worship, besides Allah, things that can neither be of any good to you nor do you harm? 67. "Fie upon you, and upon the things that ye worship besides Allah! Have ye no sense?".. 68. They said, "Burn him and protect your gods, If ye do (anything at all)!" 69. We said, "O Fire! be thou cool, and (a means of) safety for Abraham!" 70. Then they sought a stratagem against him: but We made them the ones that lost most! 71. But We delivered him and (his nephew) Lut (and directed them) to the land which We have blessed for the nations.

Midrash

"According to Jewish Midrash [6]: And Haran died in front of Terach his father. R. Hiyya the grandson of R. Ada of Yafo [said]: Terach was an idolater. One day he went out somewhere, and put Avraham in charge of selling [the idols]. When a man would come who wanted to purchase, he would say to him: “How old are you”? [The customer] would answer: “Fifty or sixty years old”. [Avraham] would say: “Woe to the man who is sixty years old And desires to worship something one day old.” [The customer] would be ashamed and leave. One day a woman came, carrying in her hand a basket of fine flour. She said: “Here, offer it before them.” Abraham siezed a stick, And smashed all the idols, And placed the stick in the hand of the biggest of them. When his father came, he said to him: “Who did this to them”? [Avraham] said:, “Would I hide anything from my father? a woman came, carrying in her hand a basket of fine flour. She said: “Here, offer it before them.” When I offered it, one god said: “I will eat first,” And another said, “No, I will eat first.” Then the biggest of them rose up and smashed all the others. [His father] said:, “Are you making fun of me? Do they know anything?” [Avraham] answered: Shall your ears not hear what your mouth is saying? He took [Avraham] and handed him over to Nimrod. [Nimrod] said to him: “Let us worship the fire”. [Avraham said to him: “If so, let us worship the water which extinguishes the fire.” [Nimrod] said to him: “Let us worship the water”. [Avraham said to him: “If so, let us worship the clouds which bear the water.” [Nimrod] said to him: “Let us worship the clouds”. [Avraham said to him: “If so, let us worship the wind which scatters the clouds.” [Nimrod] said to him: “Let us worship the wind”. [Avraham said to him: “If so, let us worship man who withstands the wind.” [Nimrod] said to him: “You are speaking nonsense; I only bow to the fire. “I will throw you into it. “Let the G-d to Whom you bow come and save you from it.” Haran was there. He said [to himself] Either way; If Avraham is successful, I will say that I am with Avraham; If Nimrod is successful, I will say that I am with Nimrod. Once Avraham went into the furnace and was saved, They asked [Haran]: “With which one are you [allied]”? He said to them: “I am with Avraham.” They took him and threw him into the fire and his bowels were burned out. He came out and died in front of Terach his father. This is the meaning of the verse: And Haran died in front of Terach." This story from Midrash Rabbah Genesis can be dated to the 2nd century, written by Rabbi Hiyya. Midrash in Hebrew is מדרש and means rabbinic interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is also the name for the collection of Midrashic sources. Genesis Rabbah is connected with the book of Genesis and Genesis Rabbah is also called Bereshit Rabbah. Examples of clear common words in Midrash Rabbah Genesis are: “Terach was an idolater” vs Qur’an 21:52: “he said to his father … images, to which ye are (so assiduously) devoted?” and “I only bow to the fire. “I will throw you into it … Avraham went into the furnace and was saved” vs Qur’an 21:68-69: “They said, "Burn him and protect your gods, If ye do (anything at all)!" We said, "O Fire! be thou cool, and (a means of) safety for Abraham!”

Muslim response

Some Muslims have attempted to refute the claim that Quran 21:51-71 was copied from an earlier Jewish source. [7] 1. Dating Genesis Rabbah: The document was published later than the Qur'an. 2. Genesis Rabbah was composed much later than the Jerusalem Talmud. 3. There was no support for the Jewish story among the Jews in the time of Muhammad. Ad 1: Genesis Rabbah are rabbinic interpretations of the book of Genesis. It is dated between 300 and 500 AD, but there were also later additions [8] [9] Ad 2: The approximate date of Jerusalem Talmud is from the 4th to 5th centuries AD. It is therefore not impossible that the Genesis Rabbah falls at the same time as the Jerusalem Talmud and not much later. Ad 3: The Hebrew Scriptures mention in Genesis 25:1-4 that there were Jews in Arabia. Historians have verified that the Greek translation dates no later than the 1st century BC, many centuries before Muhammad. Judaism has been represented in important followers since the first century BC, due to the forced migration of Jews [10]. It opens up the possibility that the Jewish story was with the Jews in Muhammad's time. There is always some uncertainty when historians date old documents. But in light of so much Quranic content borrowed from Jewish, Christian and pagan Arabic sources, it is not unreasonable to add Quran 21:51-71 to this list.

Qur’an 27:17-44 - Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

Another option for borrowed content from Jewish sources is Quran 27:22-44. It is about a story of Solomon in which he meets the queen of Sheba. This interesting story is not part of the Bible. It is found in the Jewish "Targum Sheni". [11] [12] The story in Targum Sheni is written in Aramaic in addition to the book of Esther in the Hebrew Scriptures.

Qur’an 27:16-44 (Yusuf Ali)

16. And Solomon was David´s heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)" 17. And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts,- of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks. 18. At length, when they came to a (lowly) valley of ants, one of the ants said: "O ye ants, get into your habitations, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you (under foot) without knowing it." 19. So he smiled, amused at her speech; and he said: "O my Lord! so order me that I may be grateful for Thy favours, which thou hast bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may work the righteousness that will please Thee: And admit me, by Thy Grace, to the ranks of Thy righteous Servants." 20. And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? 21. "I will certainly punish him with a severe penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence)." 22. But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. 23. "I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne. 24. "I found her and her people worshipping the sun besides Allah: Satan has made their deeds seem pleasing in their eyes, and has kept them away from the Path,- so they receive no guidance,- 25. "(Kept them away from the Path), that they should not worship Allah, Who brings to light what is hidden in the heavens and the earth, and knows what ye hide and what ye reveal. 26. "Allah!- there is no god but He!- Lord of the Throne Supreme!" 27. (Solomon) said: "Soon shall we see whether thou hast told the truth or lied! 28. "Go thou, with this letter of mine, and deliver it to them: then draw back from them, and (wait to) see what answer they return"... 29. (The queen) said: "Ye chiefs! here is delivered to me - a letter worthy of respect. 30. "It is from Solomon, and is (as follows): ´In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful: 31. "´Be ye not arrogant against me, but come to me in submission (to the true Religion).´" 32. She said: "Ye chiefs! advise me in (this) my affair: no affair have I decided except in your presence." 33. They said: "We are endued with strength, and given to vehement war: but the command is with thee; so consider what thou wilt command." 34. She said: "Kings, when they enter a country, despoil it, and make the noblest of its people its meanest thus do they behave. 35. "But I am going to send him a present, and (wait) to see with what (answer) return (my) ambassadors." 36. Now when (the embassy) came to Solomon, he said: "Will ye give me abundance in wealth? But that which Allah has given me is better than that which He has given you! Nay it is ye who rejoice in your gift! 37. "Go back to them, and be sure we shall come to them with such hosts as they will never be able to meet: We shall expel them from there in disgrace, and they will feel humbled (indeed)." 38. He said (to his own men): "Ye chiefs! which of you can bring me her throne before they come to me in submission?" 39. Said an ´Ifrit, of the Jinns: "I will bring it to thee before thou rise from thy council: indeed I have full strength for the purpose, and may be trusted." 40. Said one who had knowledge of the Book: "I will bring it to thee within the twinkling of an eye!" Then when (Solomon) saw it placed firmly before him, he said: "This is by the Grace of my Lord!- to test me whether I am grateful or ungrateful! and if any is grateful, truly his gratitude is (a gain) for his own soul; but if any is ungrateful, truly my Lord is Free of all Needs, Supreme in Honour !" 41. He said: "Transform her throne out of all recognition by her: let us see whether she is guided (to the truth) or is one of those who receive no guidance." 42. So when she arrived, she was asked, "Is this thy throne?" She said, "It was just like this; and knowledge was bestowed on us in advance of this, and we have submitted to Allah (in Islam)." 43. And he diverted her from the worship of others besides Allah: for she was (sprung) of a people that had no faith. 44. She was asked to enter the lofty Palace: but when she saw it, she thought it was a lake of water, and she (tucked up her skirts), uncovering her legs. He said: "This is but a palace paved smooth with slabs of glass." She said: "O my Lord! I have indeed wronged my soul: I do (now) submit (in Islam), with Solomon, to the Lord of the Worlds."

Targum Sheni

“At another time, when the heart of Solomon was gladdened with wine, he gave orders for the beasts of the land, the birds of the air, the creeping things of the earth, the demons from above and the Genii, to be brought, that they might dance around him, in order that all the kings waiting upon him might behold his grandeur. And all the royal scribes summoned by their names before him; in fact, all were there except the captives and prisoners and those in charge of them. Just then the Red-cock, enjoying itself, could not be found; and King Solomon said that they should seize and bring it by force, and indeed he sought to kill it. But just then the cock appeared in presence of the King, and said: O Lord, King of the earth! having applied thine ear, listen to my words. It is hardly three months since I made a firm resolution within me that I would not eat a crumb of bread, nor drink a drop of water until I had seen the whole world, and over it make my flight, saying to myself, I must know the city and the kingdom which is not subject to thee, my Lord King. Then I found the fortified city Qîtôr in the Eastern lands, and around it are stones of gold and silver in the streets plentiful as rubbish, and trees planted from the beginning of the world, and rivers to water it, flowing out of the garden of Eden. Many men are there wearing garlands from the garden close by. They shoot arrows, but cannot use the bow. They are ruled by a woman, called Queen of Sheba. Now if it please my Lord King, thy servant, having bound up my girdle, will set out for the fort Qîtôr in Sheba; and having "bound their Kings with chains and their Nobles with links of iron," will bring them into thy presence. The proposal pleased the King, and the scribes prepared a despatch, which was placed under the bird's wing, and away it flew high up in the sky. It grew strong surrounded by a crowd of birds, and reached the Fort of Sheba. By chance the Queen of Sheba was out in the morning worshipping the sea; and the air being darkened by the multitude of birds, she became so alarmed as to rend her clothes in trouble and distress. Just then the Cock alighted by her, and she seeing the letter under its wing opened and read it as follows: "King Solomon sendeth to thee his salaam, and saith, The high and holy One hath set me over the beasts of the field, etc.; and the kings of the four Quarters send to ask after my welfare. Now if it please thee to come and ask after my welfare, I will set thee high above them all. But if it please thee not, I will send kings and armies against thee; — the beasts of the field are my people, the birds of the air my riders, the demons and genii thine enemies, — to imprison you, to slay and to feed upon you." When the Queen of Sheba heard it, she again rent her garments, and sending for her Nobles asked their advice. They knew not Solomon, but advised her to send vessels by the sea, full of beautiful ornaments and gems, together with 6000 boys and girls in purple garments, who had all been born at the same moment; also to send a letter promising to visit him by the end of the year. It was a journey of seven years but she promised to come in three. When at last she came, Solomon sent a messenger shining in brilliant attire, like the morning dawn, to meet her. As they came together, she stepped from her carriage. "Why dost thou thus?" he asked. "Art thou not Solomon?" she said. "Nay, I am but a servant that standeth in his presence." The queen at once addressed a parable to her followers in compliment to him, and then was led by him to the Court. Solomon hearing she had come, arose and sat down in the Palace of glass. When the Queen of Sheba saw it, she thought that the glass floor was water, and so in crossing over lifted up her garments. When Solomon seeing the hair about her legs, cried out to her: Thy beauty is the beauty of women, but thy hair is as the hair of men; hair is good in man, but in woman it is not becoming. On this she said: My Lord, I have three enigmas to put to thee. If thou canst answer them, I shall know that thou art a wise man: but if not thou art like all around thee. When he had answered all three, she replied, astonished: Blessed be the Lord thy God, who hath placed thee on the throne that thou mightest rule with right and justice. And she gave to Solomon much gold and silver; and he to her whatsoever she desired.” Qur’an 27:22-45 follows the content given in the Targum Sheni, with main elements as the hoopoe, and the shining floor of the palace which she mistook for a pool of water though some details probably derive from Christian legends.[13]. The date of the Targum Sheni cannot be determined exactly. There is an assumption that it is within the Amoraic period in 4 th century [14], but according to other scholars it is possible that is in 6 th century after the rule of Justinian (527-565). [15]

Muslim response

According to some Muslims, the date of the Targum of Sheni is later than the Qur’an. [16] That is why they say that Targum Sheni was not published before the 8th century and after the Qur'an. This may indicate that the Jews copied the story from the Qur’an. It is not an easy task to refute the Muslim response, as the oldest manuscript of Targum Sheni cannot be dated with certainty. However, it is not impossible that older manuscripts have been lost. The Jerusalem Talmud mentions the Targum of Esther and refers to it in the Tractrate Sopherim (XIII:6). [17] Therefore, the document can be dated to the 4th century. More important is the oral tradition of the Jews that has been verified by historians.

Conclusion

The Qur’an has many verses that can be compared to Jewish sources. This opens up the possibility that Muhammad's knowledge did not come from God, but was a combination of pre-existing sources. It can be verified that a number of Qur’anic verses and their stories can be compared with content from Jewish sources. A traditional Muslim may reconsider that Muhammad was inspired by God.

Notes

  1. Michael Graves, The Upraised Mountain and Israel's Election in the Qurʾan and Talmud, Sheffield, 2018.
  2. Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, The Quran With Tafsir Ibn Kathir Part 1 of 30: Al Fatiha 001 To Al Baqarah 141, MSA, 2011.
  3. Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, Hendrickson, 2011.
  4. Meir Bar-Ilan, Sūrat Yūsuf (XII) and Some of Its Possible Jewish Sources, in: Alberdina Houtman, Stories and Traditions in Transformation, Leiden, 2016, 191-194.
  5. Jacob Neusner, The Talmud of Babylonia: An American Translation XXIIC: Tractate Sanhedrin Chapters 9–11, Chico, 1985, 105.
  6. Midrash B'reishit Rabbah 38:13.
  7. The Story Of Abraham And Idols In The Qur'an And Midrash Genesis Rabbah, Islamic-awareness.Org.
  8. Eden as Paradigm? Genesis Rabbah's, Brill.Com.
  9. Günter Stemberger, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch, Ninth Edition, Munich, 2011, 66-72.
  10. G.D. Newby, A History of the Jews of Arabia. From Ancient Times to their Eclipse under Islam, Columbia, 1988.
  11. Bernard Grossfeld (tr.), The Targum of Esther (Second) (Targum Sheni) Edinburgh, 1991.
  12. Robert Hayward, Profile Targum Esther Sheni, Aramaic Studies 9.1 (2011) 65–82, Brill.Com.
  13. Haim Z'ew Hirschberg, Encyclopaedia Judaica, Sheba, Queen Of, CD-ROM Edition, 1997.
  14. S. Gelbhaus, Das Targum Sheni zum Buche Esther, 1893.
  15. Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 15, Sm-Un, Jerusalem, 1971, Targum Sheni, 813.
  16. Is The Qur'anic Story Of Solomon & Sheba From The Targum Sheni?, Islamic-awareness.Org, 1999.
  17. Bernard Grossfield, The Aramaic Bible – Volume 18: The Two Targums of Esther, Collegeville, 1991, Chapter VII.