Sections > Qur’an

Analysis of the Qur’an as God’s message

The Qur’an is the holy book of Islam. According to traditional Islam, it was compiled in the 7th century in the Arabian Peninsula during the life of the Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an has influenced history on both religious, cultural, political, and intellectual levels. Devout Muslims believe that the Qur’an is a divine gift to mankind. This means that such a book must be perfect. Because of this claim, there have been critical reviews of the Qur’an.

Context of a perfect Qur’an

Perfection can be defined as the state of being complete and correct in every way [1]. Traditional followers of Islam claim that the Qur’an is faultless because "no change has ever occurred in the text of the Qur’an" [2]. Believing in a perfect message of the Quran is the most important test for any Muslim. Many Muslims attempt to escape the test to find an error in the Quran, claiming that the real presentation of such a challenge is neither in line with human nature nor should it be consistent with human nature. Rather than supposing the Qur’an as divine revelation, critical scholars have asked questions on the text according to historical, linguistic, and literary approaches. These questions are: Where did the text come from? Which sources had an impact on it? How did it develop into the current version of the book? Since the Quran is the cornerstone of Islam, its imperfections are a serious threat. Due to the Qur’an's great status, a Muslim would lose all of his spiritual basis without it. Due to the sensitivities surrounding the Qur’an's high status among Muslims, people should not minimize the Qur’an but instead adopt the mindset that a Muslim should follow the path that the living God desires. However, it will be difficult to deny that many Muslims have doubts about the Qur’an. A balanced summary of the key approach is provided here.

1. Historical analysis

We will look in this section about the history of the Qur’an. Source criticism, redaction criticism, literary analysis, and comparative textual history are among the historical-critical and philological techniques used in this analysis of the Qur’an that are taken from Biblical studies. Explaining how the Qur’an came to be, identifying layers or voices, and placing it in late ancient Near Eastern literary and theological settings are the objectives. This method typically leads to the conclusion that the Qur’an followed the religious climate of Arabia in the sixth and seventh centuries. It demonstrates familiarity with Christian, Jewish, Persian, and other Near Eastern customs. Oral recitation and subsequent compilation most likely contributed to the text's development. Scholars discovered that rather than transferring a completely completed book overnight, the Qur’an might have developed gradually within a community that was involved in ongoing monotheistic discussions.

Composition of the first Qur’an

Compilation in stages

Historical evidence indicates that the first Qur’an was not created as a single, completed book during Muhammad’s lifetime. Rather, it has evolved via a series of stages, starting with oral memorization and progressing to early written texts, editorial changes, and the final canon, which was not created before ʿAbd al-Malik's rule at the end of the 7th century [3].

Many versions in the early Quran

Muhammad had proclaimed his messages orally. In the early Qur’an, the believers committed the teachings to memory for prayer and meditation. Even Muhammad was unable to fully repeat the Qur’an to memory: "... such-and-such Verses of such-and-such Suras, which I was caused to forget" (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 61, Volume 6, Number 558). Another Hadith claims that Muhammad altered passages from the Qur’an: "... instead of the above Verse, the following Verse was revealed" (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 512). This supports the widespread suggestion that the Qur’an originated as inspired oral speech rather than a book. “… So I dragged him to Allah's Apostle and said (to Allah's Apostle): "I heard this person reciting Surat Al-Furqan in a way which you haven't taught me!" On that Allah's Apostle said, "Release him, (O 'Umar!) Recite, O Hisham!" Then he recited in the same way as I heard him reciting. Then Allah's Apostle said, "It was revealed in this way," and added, "Recite, O 'Umar!" I recited it as he had taught me. Allah's Apostle then said, "It was revealed in this way. This Qur’an has been revealed to be recited in seven different ways, so recite of it whichever (way) is easier for you (or read as much of it as may be easy for you)."” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 514) and “I heard a person reciting a (Quranic) Verse in a certain way, and I had heard the Prophet reciting the same Verse in a different way. So I took him to the Prophet and informed him of that but I noticed the sign of disapproval on his face, and then he said, "Both of you are correct, so don't differ, for the nations before you differed, so they were destroyed"” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 682).

Qur’an version under Abu Bakr

The idea of traditional Muslims that Abu Bakr compiled a single, comprehensive codex of the Qur’an is being challenged. Paleographic and radiocarbon studies, as well as the Sanaʿa palimpsest, provide the proof. This is in addition to the fact that an examination of the Hadith shows that questions over a completed Qu'ran during Abu Bakr's time exist. After Abu Bakr gathered the manuscripts of the Qur’an, a collection has been created. The second caliph, Umar bin Khattah, received it. Collecting all of the messages was commanded by Umar in 644. A reliable secretary of Muhammad's carried out the duty: “… Abu Bakr kept on urging me to accept his idea until Allah opened my chest for what He had ...” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 509)

Qur’an version under Uthman

The traditional Muslim perspective is oversimplified and idealized, even if there is some historical evidence for standardization under Uthman. Evidence from manuscripts and research notes textual variation before standardization, or the text's gradual stabilization. It appears that the Qur’an was not fixed immediately but through a longer process. The third caliph, Uthman Ibin Affan, determined that the new Muslims made mistakes in their interpretation of the Qur’an due to variations in Arabic dialect: “… So 'Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur’an so that we may compile the Qur’anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you." Hafsa sent it to 'Uthman. 'Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, 'Abdullah bin AzZubair, Said bin Al-As and 'AbdurRahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. 'Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, "In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Qur’an, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Qur’an was revealed in their tongue." They did so, and when they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Qur’anic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt …” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 510). After ordering the destruction of all other Qur’an texts, Uthman copied Abu Bakr's version and created copies for himself. As a result, just one codex of the Qur’an, the Uthman version, survived.

Qur’an versions after Uthman

After the period of Uthman, many researchers find evidence of ongoing diversity, variances in transmission, and a progressive stabilization of the texts. The qira'at tradition, manuscripts, early variant accounts, and later canonization processes provide the necessary proof. One person who was against Uthman's new rendition of the Qur’an was Abdullah ibn Masud. Muhammad personally entrusted the task of teaching the Qur’an to Abdullah ibn Masud: “'Abdullah bin 'Amr mentioned 'Abdullah bin Masud and said, "I shall ever love that man, for I heard the Prophet saying, 'Take (learn) the Qur’an from four: 'Abdullah bin Masud, Salim, Mu'adh and Ubai bin Ka'b.' "” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 521). See also: “The Prophet said to me, "Recite Quran to me." I said to him. "Shall I recite (it) to you while it has been revealed to you?" He said, "I like to hear it from another person."” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 61, Number 576). In his role as third caliph, Uthman overruled Abdullah ibn Masud's authority. Perhaps the work that Uthman had canonized was only one of several kinds of texts that existed during that period. [4]. There are references to verses in the Qur’an that are absent from both the contemporary and Uthmani versions. One of them concerns Adam's offspring: “... We used to recite a surah which resembled in length and severity to (Sura) Bara’at (sura 9). I have, however, forgotten it with the exception of this which I remember out of it: “If there were two valleys full of riches, for the son of Adam, he would long for a third valley, and nothing would fill the stomach of the son of Adam but dust” (Sahih Muslim, 1050, Book 5, Hadith 2286). There is also a lost Qur’an verse is Rajam of the stoning for adultery: “... Allah sent Muhammad with the Truth and revealed the Holy Book to him, and among what Allah revealed, was the Verse of the Rajam (the stoning of married person (male & female) who commits illegal sexual intercourse, and we did recite this Verse and understood and memorized it. Allah's Apostle did carry out the punishment of stoning and so did we after him. I am afraid that after a long time has passed, somebody will say, 'By Allah, we do not find the Verse of the Rajam in Allah's Book,' and thus they will go astray by leaving an obligation which Allah has revealed. ” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 8, Book 82, Number 817).

Modern Qur’an version

Because there were variant readings and manuscripts of the Qur’an, the 1924 Cairo edition standardized one version globally. The Cairo edition of the Qur’an was published in 1924 in Cairo, prepared by scholars of al-Azhar, based on the Ḥafṣ reading of ‘Asim and produced under the patronage of Fuad I of Egypt. It appears, therefore, that the modern Qur’an is effectively a 20th-century standardized text, now widely seen as the official text of the Qur’an [5].

2. Literary analysis

Scholars in Qur’anic studies and literary studies have analyzed the Qur’an as a literary work. Their findings highlight features that point to human authorship, such as jumping of Qur’an chapters (Surahs) from subject to subject and mirrored ideas. It appears that the direct responses to events in Muhammad’s life suggest persuasive speech, not timeless revelation. It is possible to observe complex rhetoric, such as parallelism, antithesis, and abrupt shifts. The poetic style of the Qur’an combines rhythmic prose with rhyme and realistic imagery, with the result that it seems that the Qur’an is like a human storyteller addressing an audience and not a perfect divine text to mankind for all times. The response to questions, controversies, or political situations appears to be more human writing reacting to a situation than divine revelation. When we compare the Arabic Qur’an text with other languages, it is possible to discover connections from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Syriac, plus regional Arabic dialects. It is therefore possible that the Qur’an text was shaped by surrounding culture, not purely divine language [6].

Expressiveness

Traditional Muslims say that an argument in favor of the Qur’an's excellence is its expressiveness. They assume that it demonstrates Muhammad's exceptional command of the written word. Nonetheless, Mozart possessed exceptional skill in music production, beginning at the young age of six. When Muhammad produced the first verses of the Qur’an, he was already into his 40s. If oratory is an indicator of greatness, then numerous individuals throughout history have created works of divine quality. [7] Several scholars have seen parallels between the Kahini and the poetic form found in the Qur’an. Arabic literature also includes rivals to the Qur’an, such as Magamet, Hariri, and Mu'allaqat. Looking at it through a literary lens, the Qur’an isn't that impressive.

Grammar

Any Arabic reader may see the numerous glaring grammatical mistakes in the Qur’an. An example is that, although it is valid in 2:62 and 22:17 of the Qur’an, "Saabi'uuna" has been declined incorrectly in 5:69. In Qur’an 4:162, the word "muqiimuun" should be used instead of "muqiimiin." "Haazaani" should be translated as "haazayn" in verse 20:63 of the Qur’an [8]. Here, the Qur’anic terminology in the verses above is the imperfect grammar of a few Arabic editors.

3. Development with many modifications

Researchers have found that the oldest Qur’an manuscripts do not point to a definitive text that was presented during the caliph Uthman ibn Affan's reign. Contrary to what traditional Muslim generations would claim to have always been the case, the historical record shows that the Qur’an text was constantly evolving and being revised and was very different from its final form. According to radiocarbon dating, the Sanaa manuscript is one of the first witnesses to the Qur’an. Erased lines, alternate expressions, deletions, and grammatical rearrangements have been made to this Qur’an manuscript. Thus, it is more than just a copying error. It provides insight into a Qur’an that predates our modern understanding of the text. We can no longer neglect the Sanaa manuscript's differences from the canonical text as mere typos. From the perspective of scholars, these variances reveal a time of textual changes, numerous recitations, written traditions, and efforts to establish order in a compilation that has changed many times. Looking at it this way, the Uthmanic codex doesn't seem to be the last Qur’an. There is no consistent text in the oldest Qur’ans. On the contrary, the writings demonstrate the evolution of the Qur’an.

Deletions

Muhammad's unenlightenment led him to add two verses to the Qur’an that he interpreted as divine: "Indeed they are the high cranes (high maidens), and indeed their intercession is to be desired" [9]. The Quraysh people were overjoyed to receive the verses because they spoke of their goddesses, Allat, al-Uzza, and Manat, who were nicknamed the "daughters of Allah." Later, when Muhammad realized his error, he removed the new revelation that contained Satanic verses.

Additions

The Qur’an contains contradictory verses. Although adulterers are still to be stoned, the punishment is lowered to 100 strokes in Qur’an 24:2. The Bismillah, the first verse of the Qur’an, is considered a relatively recent addition by Muslim scholars.

Repetition

There are numerous verses in the Qur’an that share the same text. Chapters 14, 30, 50, and 77 contain several verse repetitions [10]. The argument given by Muslim scholars for the recurrence is that it is meant to be remembered. However, the whole Qur’an was committed to memory by the first Muslims. Many surahs recycle portions of the prophets' stories. The compactness of the Qur’an could be improved by arranging its chapters according to specific topics. Muslims are increasingly being confronted to the problem of repetition due to current search technology. Some verses that are repeated in the Qur’an are 2:62 and 5:69, 16:43 and 21:7, 3:49 and 5:110.

Contradictions within the Qur’an

The majority of Muslims believe in the Qu’ran’s harmony as a book of God's last revelation. Despite that, many scholars of Qur’anic studies, textual criticism, and Islamic origins found that the Qur’an contains tensions and inconsistencies. A simple word is "contradictions," but to avoid irritation of Muslims, it has also been called variant traditions, editorial layers, or theological tension. Here are the most agreed-upon contradictions in the Qur’an [11]:

Were heaven and earth created in 6 or 8 days?

Creation was in 6 days: “Your Guardian-Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and is firmly established on the throne (of authority): He draweth the night as a veil o´er the day, each seeking the other in rapid succession: He created the sun, the moon, and the stars, (all) governed by laws under His command. Is it not His to create and to govern? Blessed be Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds!” (Qur’an 7:54). Creation was in 8 days: according to Qur’an 41:9–12, the earth was created in two days, the universe outside of it in two days, and the earth itself was completed in four days. Therefore, the creation of heaven and earth was in 8 days. It looks like there is a tension between the two passages, or a contradiction.

How was the first man created?

God has created Adam from clay: “Behold, thy Lord said to the angels: ‘I am about to create man from clay.’” (Qur’an 38:71). But other verses say that creation was from a sperm drop: “He has created man from a sperm-drop; and behold this same (man) becomes an open disputer!” (Qur’an 16:4). See also Qur’an 38:75 and 96:2. Since clay is different than sperm, this tension is a difficulty in the Qur’an.

Can worshiping the golden calf be forgiven?

Yes, worshiping the golden calf has been forgiven: “And remember We appointed forty nights for Moses, and in his absence ye took the calf (for worship), and ye did grievous wrong. Even then We did forgive you; there was a chance for you to be grateful” (Qur’an 2:51-52), see also Qur’an 4:153. But another verse says there was no forgiveness: “Allah forgiveth not that partners should be set up with Him; but He forgiveth anything else, to whom He pleaseth; to set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin Most heinous indeed” (Qur’an 4:48) and: “Those who took the calf (for worship) will indeed be overwhelmed with wrath from their Lord, and with shame in this life: thus do We recompense those who invent (falsehoods)” (Qur’an 7:152). Also Qur’an 4:116. To be forgiven or not to be forgiven are different statements. Both cannot be true, with the result that we can say we have found an error in the Qur’an.

Divine revelation

One Qur’an verse says that Allah comes with revelation through the Holy Spirit: “Say, the Holy Spirit has brought the revelation from thy Lord in Truth, in order to strengthen those who believe, and as a Guide and Glad Tidings to Muslims” (Qur’an 16:102). But according to another verse it is the angel Gabriel: “Say: Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel-for he brings down the (revelation) to thy heart by Allah’s will, a confirmation of what went before, and guidance and glad tidings for those who believe” (Qur’an 2:97). A third verse is telling us that divine revelation comes with angels: (Qur’an 16:2). The Qur’an has different statements about the source of revelation to man, which can be called a fault.

Divine guidance to the truth

One verse shows Allah’s guidance to the truth: “Say: ‘Of your partners is there any that can give any guidance towards truth?’ Say: ‘It is Allah Who gives guidance towards truth, is then He Who gives guidance to truth more worthy to be followed, or he who finds not guidance (himself) unless he is guided? what then is the matter with you? How judge ye?’” (Qur’an 10:35). In another there is a denial that it is always certain: “Of them there are some who (pretend to) listen to thee; but We have thrown veils on their hearts, So they understand it not, and deafness in their ears; if they saw every one of the signs, not they will believe in them; in so much that when they come to thee, they (but) dispute with thee; the Unbelievers say: ‘These are nothing but tales of the ancients’” (Qur’an 6:25). See also: “We sent not a messenger except (to teach) in the language of his (own) people, in order to make (things) clear to them. Now Allah leaves straying those whom He pleases and guides whom He pleases: and He is Exalted in power, full of Wisdom” (Qur’an 14:4). It cannot be true that Allah guides to the truth and leaves straying, which is a contradiction in the Qur’an.

Compulsion in Religion

In the Qur’an is support for compulsion in religion: “Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Apostle, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued” (Quran 9:29). See also: Qur’an 9:3 and 9:5. However, there is also freedom to select your own religion: “Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects evil and believes in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. And Allah heareth and knoweth all things” (Quran 2:256). Different statements about compulsion in religion or not look like a contradiction.

4. Not transferring the complete message of the Bible

We will look at how the monotheistic faiths practiced by Christians and Jews in the Arabian Peninsula during the seventh century influenced the Qur’an. These monotheistic Abrahamic religions were already circulating orally and in local religious memory among Jews and Christians. These findings could mean that Muhammad's teachings reshaped and changed fundamental beliefs like the divinity of Christ and the crucifixion, rather than just repeating the holy books. It allowed Muhammad to feel more at ease letting his messages be understood within an Arabian context for his immediate audience and environment, even when it meant not transmitting the original meaning.

Deviations of the Qur’an compared with the Bible

The Trinity has three gods

It appears that Muslims have misunderstood the Christian doctrine as implying either that Christians worship three gods or that they worship a single God with three component parts [12]. See Quran 5:73: “They do blaspheme who say: Allah is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah. If they desist not from their word (of blasphemy), verily a grievous penalty will befall the blasphemers among them.”

Mary as the sister of Aaron

The Qur’an mentions Mary as Aaron’s sister: “At length she brought the (babe) to her people, carrying him (in her arms). They said: “O Mary! Truly an amazing thing hast thou brought! “O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a man of evil, nor thy mother a woman unchaste!” (Quran 19:27-28). Note that the context is dealing with Mary bore Jesus (Quran 19:20-29). But Mary was not the sister of Aaron. It suggests that the writer of the Qur’an made a mistake.

Ezra as the Son of God

“And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allah, and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah. That is their saying with their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved of old. Allah (Himself) fighteth against them. How perverse are they!” (Quran 9:30). However, there is no record of the Jews calling Uzair, or Ezra, God. Therefore, Ezra as the Son of God appears to be an error in the Qur’an.

5. Scientific faults

There are many differences in statements in the Qur’an that are not confirmed in modern science. Below are only a few examples.

Seven layers

The Qur’an copied the Near East view about creation details: “So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge” (Qur’an 41:12). See also Qur’an 23:17, 41:12, 65:12, 78:12. According to modern science, there are only five layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

The Moon split in two

“The Hour (of Judgment) is nigh, and the moon is cleft asunder. But if they see a Sign, they turn away, and say, ‘This is (but) transient magic.’ They reject (the warning) and follow their (own) lusts but every matter has its appointed time” (Qur’an 54:1-3). But although there were many astronomers in Europe and Asia in Muhammad’s time, no evidence can be found.

Embryology

“Now let man but think from what he is created! He is created from a drop emitted-Proceeding from between the backbone and the ribs” (Qur’an 86:5-7). That man was created from a drop that comes from between the spine and the ribs is an error. This knowledge comes from Hippocrates, who lived before Muhammad.

6. Muhammad’s role as political leader

Depending on the context, the Qur’an’s tone can shift, and at times it seems to contradict or replace itself with earlier claims. It also deals with particular controversy. In the eyes of traditional Muslims, Muhammad was a prophet and teacher who delivered the teachings of the Qur’an. It appears that with the discovered contradictions and replacements, the Qur’an is more about Muhammad's proclamations than God speaking directly, word-for-word, to humanity.

Illiteracy of Muhammad

The majority of Muslims hold Muhammad in a high position as a prophet because of his role in producing the Qur’an. Considering Muhammad's illiteracy, this is even more remarkable to them. But the illiteracy has not been confirmed in historical records. Keep in mind that before he became a preacher of Islam, Muhammad worked as a salesperson. Not only has he been on multiple business trips, but he has also been to Syria. Knowing how to read and write is very helpful when traveling and when dealing with official matters. The assertion that he was illiterate is further debunked, since literacy was common among the Meccans [13]. The term "ummi" in Qur’an 7:157-158 does not refer to someone who is illiterate but rather someone who does not possess a book. According to Qur’an (62:2), it is concerning those who lacked a divinely revealed book. As a result, the Quran was written for a people who did not possess a sacred text that contained the revelations of God.

Muslim response

According to traditional Muslims, the textual stability can be explained by the oral preservation and early codification. Muslim scholars argue that the divinity of the Qur’an is confirmed by its linguistic traits, internal coherence, and the fact that it testifies to itself.

Conclusion

The Qur’an is respected by devout and traditional Muslims as God's genuine revelation. However, non-Muslim scholars who analyzed the Qur’an, conclude that it is a historical, literary, and human-authored text is a kind of historical religious literature that was initiated by Muhammad and then assembled by early Muslim societies. It has been influenced by pre-existing monotheistic religions since the seventh century in Arabia. Scholars generally conclude that the Qur’an is deeply embedded in the "Late Antique" world. The holy book of the Muslims was not compiled without references to the culture in that period. Researchers have found connections with Syriac Christian traditions because the Qur’an text contains both biblical stories and Christian apocrypha. Traces of Judaism and Jewish Midrash have been found. Furthermore, there is Arabic poetry in the text of pre-Islamic sources. It is possible to see the text of the Qur’an as a reaction to the specific socio-political conditions, like the critique of the wealthy Meccan business class and an attempt to create a more lower-class people community. The traditional Islamic view that the Qur’an has been revealed in one moment has been refuted by many historical documents. Many scholars see the Qur’an as a religious document that has been developed during decades, or years, or centuries. Therefore, we can conclude that the Qur’an cannot be God’s perfect message.

Notes

1. Cambridge Dictionary, English (UK), perfection, dictionary.cambridge.org, 2026.
2. Mazhar Kazi, Evident Miracles in the Qur’an, Crescent, Richmond Hill, 1997, 42-43.
3. Stephen J. Shoemaker, Creating the Qur’an: A Historical-Critical Study, University of California Press, 2022, 43.
4. Arthur Jeffrey, Materials for the history of the text of the Qur’an: the old codices, Brill, Leiden, 1937, 8.
5. Gabriel Said Reynolds (ed), The Qur’an in its Historical Context, Routledge, London, 2008, 3.
6. Angelika Neuwirth, The Qur’an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage, Oxford University Press Academic, 2019, 3.
7. Clinton Bennett, Interpreting the Qur’an: a guide for the uninitiated, Continuum, New York, 2010, 16-19.
8. M. Rafiqul-Haqq, P. Newton, The Qur’an: Grammatical errors, 1996.
9. Sahab Ahmed, Satanic Verses, in: Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, Volume Five, Brill, Leiden, 2002, 532.
10. Ibrahimkhan O. Deshmukh, The Gospel and Islam. GLS Publishing, Mumbai, 2011, 93.
11. Pieter van Rossum, Islam and Christian Faith: Rather be Muslim or become Christian?, Living Global Publications, 2026, 48-52.
12. Alister McGrath, Christian theology: an introduction, Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2025, 354.
13. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, Clarendon, Oxford, 1953, 50-53.